Paper

//At its most basic, a trail is a path connecting two points. The process of constructing and designing trails is called trail building, and the purpose of this paper was to assess how to build a trail as friendly to the surrounding environment as possible. The construction of an environmentally friendly trail must consider the factors of layout and design, soil composition, erosion, and vegetation. It must also avoid water when possible, as water causes significant ecological problems when in contact with trails. Specifically water on the trail leads to erosion, nutrient run off and sedimentation. Successful trail builders make environmentally friendly trails because these trails are more sustainable than others. Knowing how to build a trail without harming the environment will help my project, which is to build a trail. Half of the project is surveying and design, and the other half is construction. Interviewed for this paper were David Dannenberg and the Iguazu National Park Ranger from Argentina. Experts cited in this paper included Woody Hesselbarth, Robert Proudman and Robert Birkby.//
 * // Abstract //**

Environmentally Friendly Trail building In a changing world of greengineering and eco-friendliness, from bio-degradable commodities to carbon neutrality, one of the slowest changing frontiers is that of trail building. People often overlook trail building or deem it unimportant, but as clean and undeveloped land diminishes, building trails properly and with concern for the environment will save more and more land from becoming dumpsites or new buildings. Poorly built trails, even when built with good intentions, can erode causing serious damage to the habitat, as well as be sinkholes for funds later. The difference between a good trail and a bad trail can be as simple as the trail grade being just a little too steep (Hesselbarth, 11). If it is too steep, the water will funnel down and cause erosion. I formulated this question based off of my concerns: How can one build a trail that doesn't negatively impact the habitat through which it goes? I'll use what I've learned to design a trail for a piece of private land in Oxford County, Maine. The design of the trail will satisfy a diversity of recreational needs and more importantly, the design will minimize its negative impact on the land it goes through (Proudman, 4). A question that I had to answer for myself before starting this project was, “**why bother?”** If I didn't have a good enough answer for this then there was really no point to my project or paper other than to graduate high school. The whole thing would prove to be arbitrary. After some careful thinking, I came up with an answer. People have lost touch with nature. We are surrounded by buildings and cement structures most of the day. School, work, and many of our hobbies support and even promote a sedentary lifestyle that keeps us inside and far from nature. It should not be a challenge to just go outside and enjoy nature. Woody Hesselbarth, author of the //USDA Trail Construction and Maintenance Notebook,// agrees with this stance. He says that "Recreation trails are for people. They allow us to go back to our roots. Trails help humans make sense of a world increasingly dominated by automobiles and pavement. They allow us to come more closely in touch with our natural surroundings, to soothe our psyches, to challenge our bodies, and to practice ancient skills"(9). Those ancient skills won't be found online or on any channel you flip to, either. There is no point in making a trail that degrades the habitat. This may seem obvious, but some trails are disastrous. They stand up to the elements for a few months before getting washed away, worn down and becoming harmful to the environment. For this reason I chose to focus my project on designing a trail that is the best for the habitat and environment that it can be. The project is the design and construction of such a trail. The paper will outline what I've learned about the wrong and right ways to build trails, as well as explain why I chose certain methods or structures over others for the trail I am building. Unfortunately for trail builders there is no one way to build a trail. Trails can become harmful to the environment in many ways because of this. Some of the ways are unforeseeable, like natural disasters or other unpredictable occurrences, but many can be avoided or stopped if with careful planning and design from the beginning. Hesselbarth offers some of his sage wisdom at the end of the // Avoiding Trail Disasters // section in his guide: “Planning is stupidity avoidance. Do good planning for all levels of trail work" (11). This advice has helped to narrow and sculpt my project into something that is both manageable and plausible. To make a trail that doesn't harm the habitat, four key factors must be considered:
 * Layout and Design
 * Good "rhythm and flow"
 * Uses of the trail
 * Multiple trails
 * Path of least resistance
 * Negative control points
 * Grade steepness
 * Erosion and Water
 * Surface Erosion
 * Nutrient Runoff
 * Carrying capacity
 * Trail degradation
 * Grade dip
 * Water bar
 * Out sloping
 * Soil Composition
 * Tread
 * Drainage
 * Depth
 * Texture
 * Packed soil
 * Compaction
 * Vegetation
 * Invasive species
 * Using vegetation
 * Bio-inventory
 * Environmental Restoration
 * Re-vegetation

Trails consist of three different parts. There is the tread**,** or treadway, which is the part of the trail that gets the most wear and tear. It is the surface of the soil that makes contact with the hiker. There is also the trail right-of-way. It is the area around the treadway that is cleared of vegetation for the hiker, usually four to six feet on either side of the hiker. The third part is called the protection or buffer zone. It is the strip of land on either side of the trail right-of-way and it acts to insulate the hiker from anything that could take away from the hiking experience. These activities are things like mining, logging or home developments. All together, these three parts are called the trail corridor (Proudman, 5). "A little bit more effort today will result in a great deal less application of scarce resources in the future" (Birkby, 175). A properly designed trail layout can save a lot of time and resources, as well as the habitat. For example, most would agree that it would be foolish to plot a trail through bogs and marshlands for a variety of reasons. This would be difficult to maintain and would be disastrous in the long run to the health of the habitat. To easily avoid eco-disasters, it helps to do a lot of preliminary work before beginning to dig or cut. The first step to laying out a trail is to monitor the current condition of the land. Areas can change from year to year, and it is important to have the condition up-to-date. When finding out the condition, it is vital to do a biological inventory. This inventory will gives a sense of what flora and fauna are in the area. If there are endangered species in the area then relocation can be the best option. Once the condition is known, the surveying of the land can begin. Surveying was an exciting aspect of this project. ”The image has adventurous appeal- surveyors going on foot into the backcountry to explore the terrain... But beyond the romance of surveying is a hard, cold truth"(Birkby, 131). The hard, cold truth is that surveying is not only one of the toughest parts of the whole trail building process; it is also one of the most essential. A poorly built trail is still restorable as long as the surveying is adequate, but the opposite will not hold true. No matter how well a trail is built, if the design is impractical it will eventually falter. (Birkby, 135). After initially studying maps of the area and checking conditions, surveying can commence with the identification of positive control points. Positive control points are points that the designer wants hikers to pass by or view. Positive control points are attractions along the trail for the hikers to visit. They can be things like a waterfall, a monument, an old house, an interesting geologic formation or an amazing view. Along with these, the trail head and final destination are also positive control points. The trail head is the beginning of the trail, and is often also the final destination. To identify the control points, the purpose of the trail must be known. Dave Dannenberg, an avid trail builder, said in an interview that the first step of designing a trail starts with asking questions like, for whom is this trail being built? For what purpose? For example, if this trail is being built for dog walkers, then control points might be open fields where dogs can play. If the trail is for bikers, then other control points would be identified (Dannenberg). As there are positive control points, there are negative control points too. These are places in the area of the trail that the trail should stay away from. Negative control points can be blotches of poison ivy, fragile lake shores, animal nesting grounds, and even areas of heavy brush. The brush can be cleared away the first time the trail is laid down, but then further maintenance will prove to be difficult as it re-grows and re-grows (Birkby, 140). Surveying entails finding a path from control point to control point. Plotting the path can prove to be tricky. It is best to use the natural features of the land to your advantage (Hesselbarth, 24). If a straight line from control point A to control point B goes through boulders, trees, swamps or holes in the ground, the trail should fit in between the boulders, trees and swamps to reach control point B. After finishing identifying control points, it is time to consider the trail grade. The percent of grade is measured by dividing the vertical ascension (rise) by the horizontal distance (run). The grade of the trail at any point must be no more than 1/2 of the grade of the slope. If a side of a hill is at an 18% grade, then the trail on it must be less than a 9% grade. This will keep the trail sustainable and viable, helping keep the habitat around it safe (Hesselbarth, 17). If the trail is more steep than 1/2 the side slope grade, it may result in multiple trails being created. Since the trail designed is not the path of least resistance to the next control point, hikers will simply make their own trails. This will lead to vegetation getting trampled, and possibly erosion. The path outlined must be the path of least resistance (Hesselbarth, 10)! This is all part of creating a trail that has a good rhythm and flow. The trail should conform naturally to the area and there should be a flow that keeps the hikers on the trail. Sharp turns and trails that go through negative control points will result in multiple trails being formed as well. Once again, the best trails are ones that take advantage of natural land features. They look like they "just happened". It is also important to remember, when planning control points and laying out the trail among natural land features, that a trail should be cleared approximately 1 meter from each side of the center of the trail (Hesselbarth, 44). "The first three rules of trail building are: 1. Keep the water off the trail. 2. Keep the water off the trail. 3. Keep the water off the trail" (Dannenberg). Without a doubt, a well designed trail also stays away from water when it can. Water leads to an array of problems further on. In early trail building, water was even considered an evil force. This stand on water makes sense as its erosive capabilities are like none other. Trail building without the effect of water in mind will lead to ecological degradation. Areas that normally drain the water naturally would begin to erode due to compressed soil on the tread. The SCA manual suggests that people should work with water instead of against it (Birkby, 159). Water deals two big blows to trails. First, it can erode tread. The other big blow is that it carries dirt from the trail away and downhill (Hesselbarth, 26). Due to gravity, water will go downhill regardless of any trails in the way; it makes no difference to the water. It is important, therefore, to build a trail that diverts surface water off the trail. If it is left on the surface, bogs and puddles can appear on the trail. Hikers will naturally walk around them to avoid getting wet, and inevitably widen the trail and damage vegetation and wildlife. If the water does not stay on the trail but just travels down it, erosion will occur. Erosion is bad news for trails. It is the process of soil being worn away by wind, water, or any other mechanism. It will degrade tread and cause poor footing on the trail. This in turn, similar to the effects of a puddle on the path, will lead to hikers walking around the trail, creating a "vicious circle of plant mortality" (Proudman, 16). It can also cause sedimentation in waterways below the trail which worsens the water quality and prevents growth at the bottom of the water. And if it was not enough that erosion, like water, causes hikers to step on vegetation, erosion also removes the foundation for ecosystems by removing soil that keeps trees and plants in place. The exposed mineral sub-soil is very welcoming to invasive plants as well, which even further degrades the ecosystem (Dannenberg). Luckily for trails all around the world there are several methods to prevent erosion from occurring. One such method is a grade dip. Grade dips are when the trail reverses grade and rises a foot or so to create an elevation gain. The elevation gain is called a freeboard, and prevents water from continuing on the trail. Grade dips are very simple and require little to manipulate the water flow because they can be designed into the contour of the trail. They also require practically no maintenance The next method is also fairly simple, and can successfully divert water from the trail. It is called a water bar. Trail builders implement water bars when grade dips are not surveyed into the trail during the survey stage. They are perpendicular to the trail, angled downhill and act as a physical barrier to divert water flow (Birkby, 161). The cheapest and simplest method is out sloping the tread. Out sloping is making the tread lower on the outside than on the inside. Out sloping lets water flow naturally off the trail, and requires a 5% slope. The effect of an out slope should be barely noticeable, and should not impede hikers’ movements (Hesselbarth, 59). A good test is to roll an orange down an out sloped trail. If it only curves out slightly, then the out slope should be sustainable. Structures like bridges and puncheons can be great in dealing with water but are time consuming and expensive. They require more maintenance and can wear away and ruin the rhythm and flow of the trail, leading to the creation of multiple trails. If at all possible, keep it simple by making the design of the trail avoid the need for structures. It is important to note that most of these methods work in temperate forests with reasonable rainfall levels. Out sloping and waterbars would be futile in areas that see more than 100" of rain a year. Trails at Iguaçu National Park in Northern Argentina have abandoned traditional trails on the ground for completely man-made trails. The park has recently completely replaced their old system of trails. They have to carefully maintain all the trails in the park because there is so much water flow that they quickly get worn down. The trails are walkways on raised platforms one meter off the ground. The walkways are metal and lie on cement and rock foundations. They make the platforms raised so they do not have to deal with erosion, as well as to lessen the wear and tear on the park. There is plenty of growth beneath the raised platforms and animals can easily get through. . ** Tread and Soil Composition ** Proudman describes soil as "a mixture of organic matter, water, mineral matter and air that comprises the root zone of living plants... This covering of soil is like a mosaic, with different soil types and characteristics distinguishable from place to place"(Proudman, 13). Soil must meet specific criteria on drainage, depth, texture and type. For the soil to be good, it must allow for good drainage. As it was mentioned in the previous section, water drainage and avoiding erosion are the most important parts of trail building. If the soil does not allow for the percolation of water then it will surely degrade the environment. A quick test to see if the soil will allow drainage is to dig a shallow hole and fill it with water. If the water does not percolate down and out then it is inhibiting drainage (Proudman, 18). If the hole fills up with water before pouring any in, that is also an indicator of poor drainage. It is best to test this the day or two after heavy rainfall. If the test shows that drainage is very poor, relocating the trail would be the best choice (Birkby, 44). The soil must also be deep enough to fully allow drainage. The soil depth is the distance from the surface to the bedrock beneath. This distance must be deep enough to allow the water to drain. If it is too shallow, the water will saturate the topsoil and cause it to erode quickly. Soil texture is another important factor. Some types of texture, like clay and silt, should not compose the main part of the tread. They drain poorly and are considered fragile soils for building with. If clay is the main texture in the tread it will most likely erode and may cause sediment deposits where there should not be deposits. It is clear then that soil texture must allow for percolation and proper drainage. Gravel fragments in the soil may help to hold erodible sand and clay but the best tread is a mix of several different types of soil. Proudman suggests that "loam soils with a mixture of sands, clay and silt will resist compaction and erosion most successfully"(Proudman 19). To figure out the type of soil in the proposed trail location, the ribbon test comes in very handy (Table 1). The test is to roll a tube of the soil into a long, thin ribbon and feel the texture. Here is an identification chart similar to one done by Hesselbarth (58).
 * Layout **
 * Erosion and Water **


 * Table 1: Ribbon Test Identification Chart **
 * **Texture** || **Feel** || **Ribbon** ||
 * Sand || Grainy || No Ribbon ||
 * Loam || Soft and Grainy || Thick+Short ||
 * Silt || Floury || No Ribbon, Flakes ||
 * Sandy Clay || Decently Grainy || Long and Thin ||
 * Clay || Smooth || Long and Thin ||

This combination of various textures works best because each brings a certain characteristic to the soil. The silt and clay in small amounts add cohesion, while sand and gravel help porosity and water absorption. If the soil is somewhat sandy it will not only absorb a lot of rainwater but also resist compaction, a big problem on trails. Compaction contributes a great deal to improper water drainage. It occurs when plants bend and die due to walking and hiking on them. They compact on the surface into a layer of matter that takes on "cement-like hardness"(Proudman, 15). Water travels downhill much quicker when the soil is compacted as opposed to porous. It also prevents roots from penetrating the soil and seeds from germinating. To combat the often inevitable compaction of the soil, trail builders utilize a very simple soil loosening technique. Using a pick or shovel they make shallow cuts up to 6 inches in the soil. This allows water and air to penetrate into the depths. When loosening the soil, it is important not to overturn the soil, as the topsoil contains nutrients that plants need to survive. This solution is will allow plants to take root and increase the health of the trail and habitat (Birkby, 264). A sign of a good trail is that there is very little evidence that any vegetation has been hurt or destroyed. The trail should not look like it is interrupting the landscape. There will always be clearing brush and removing plants when building trails, but preventing the loss of further vegetation after that can help to keep the vegetation of the habitat in overall good condition. As stated before, a bioinventory is an important process that must not be overlooked. Without knowledge of what kind of plants there are in the area, it will be hard to move on from this step (Dannenberg). With an up-to-date list of the flora, the job of making the trail habitat friendly becomes easier. Identify the fragile or endangered species and where they are located. These locations will be negative control points that must be avoided. Human beings have an innate inquisitive nature, so it is important to create a buffer zone between the trail and the endangered vegetation. . If they were on the trail path in the design, the trail builders would brush and clear them away like any other vegetation without knowing it. The cleared away brush, hopefully of a non-endangered species, should not leave the area of the trail. Recycling cleared away brush is an easy way to support the plant life cycle and promote healthy vegetation. One way to recycle it is to let it decompose away from the trail, past the buffer zone. Another method is to save any fresh leaves that had to be cut for a composting site (See "Hikers Responsibility" section of this paper for more). Even vegetation like thorns is recyclable and can be advantageous to have. If the design of the trail leaves parts that allow hikers to take shortcuts through undesired spots, Thorns and underbrush placed in these spots will deter hikers from walking through. The cleared undergrowth channels and contains the hikers (Proudman, 28). This adds flexibility to the design because a trail will not have to be rebuilt or redesigned if a problem like this occurs. While clearing away the brush from the trail it is common practice to remove invasive species in the area (Dannenberg). This will allow native species to flourish. This information up to here on vegetation assumes that the trail is being constructed for the first time and that vegetation must be removed. Often times, a current trail will implement a new design and part of the trail becomes obsolete. For a healthy habitat, trail builders must clean up after themselves and restore the obsolete section to its natural state. Encouraging environmental restoration is key to improving habitat health. Revegetation is the best way to restore the trail. Passively, nature can take its course and restore the abandoned trail itself. For this to occur successfully, the trail cannot have erosion or be scarified. This method is risky because invasive species may easily enter the picture (Hesselbarth, 140). For this reason, trail builders more often implement active revegetation. This revegetation requires a careful knowledge of native plants, and is broken into two categories: Seeding and transplanting. Seeding is the planting of native plant seeds in the desired area. Before seeding may occur, sites undergo certain preparations. Here is where knowledge of native plants helps. Different plants grow under different conditions, so knowing these conditions can help replicate them. After site preparations finish, the planting can begin. This process is good for long-term restoration, as results will not be immediate. Mulching and water may be necessary as well. Transplanting is a quicker way to restore a site. This is the process of planting native, dormant plants in the site. This method requires a lot of non-native items, so it must be done very carefully. The new site must already have a hole before removing the plant from the old site, and in the hole must be put organic bone or blood meal. Then the plant can be planted and watered. A phenomenon called transplant shock may occur that decreases the likelihood that the plant will survive; to combat this, water the new plant with B-1 Hormone mixed with water. This is also an organic substance (Birkby, 271). With both methods of revegetation, it is very important not to introduce non-native species. They may out-compete native species and take nutrients from the soil, weaken the soil, and cause erosion. All of this information is incredibly pertinent to the trail being habitat friendly, but I felt that there had to be more. Most of the common-place methods were methods that did not ask anything of the hikers. The hikers have a responsibility just as much as the trail builders to help the trail be environmentally friendly. Here are a few additions to the trails that I have come up with. A compost site must be available at any trail. There is always food waste that can be easily recycled if done properly. The compost site will be away from the trail but still accessible from the trail head. For lowering maintenance of the compost site a compost "heap" is best. A compost heap is layers of organic material on top of each other on a cleared spot. If the trail is in an area of heavy traffic, digging up the soil underneath the pile about half a meter deep so there is room for all the compost is effective. The size of the compost site will also depend on the traffic that the trail sees. If the trail users are dog walkers, then they will likely have means of cleaning up after their dogs. The most common tool of the trade is the plastic grocery bag. These thin-membrane polyethylene bags are unnecessary for the task and add waste to already over-filled dump sites. At the trail head will be a dispenser of biodegradable dog waste bags. Also at the trail head will be four trash cans. The first will have a cover with a hole that is labeled “biodegradable dog waste+ bags only". The next will have a cover that says, “Compostable items” and then a clear and bold list of items that can be composted. This list will outline the most common things people compost and it will say " All plant Materials, wood, wood ashes, coffee grounds, eggshells, food scraps (not lime or meat), newspaper or uncolored paper". The third will be labeled "uncompostable items/trash" and the list will say “coal ashes, meat, fat grease, bones, limes, paper with color, other trash"(Nichols). The fourth bin will be labeled “glass and aluminum recyclables". The bin of compostable items and the bin of biodegradable waste bags will be alternately emptied into the compost site as space permits. Whenever mixing in the dog waste, septic starter should be added. This is a natural liquid that helps bacteria break down the waste (City Farmer). Also emptied into the compost will be the fresh leaves saved from the clearing of the trail. For many people, composting is a new method of recycling what we have. A sign will hang at the entrance of the trail (Hesselbarth, 125) that outlines several things:  1. The importance of taking all the trash you brought onto the trail, out  2. How to use the system of bins, what each one is for, etc.  3. Why people should stay on trails, how it promotes healthy lifestyles  All the best designing in the world means nothing if maintenance on the trail is not done. In Newton, MA, there is a park that suffers from a lack of maintenance. It is called Nahanton Park. There are two parts of the trail; one of them is along the bank of the Charles River and the other is further away. I considered Nahanton Park as a possible site to build my trail and its current condition shows a general lack of maintenance and poor planning. I have been visiting it bi-weekly to observe the trail and do pre-survey testing (Soil-Ribbon test, water hole test). I visited it after about three days of torrential downpour in early April. The most important time to see if a trail holds is right after a strong rain. That way all the parts that still need fixing are very clear. The part of the trail that borders the river completely flooded up to two feet in depth and the other part of the trail that is further away from the river suffered from serious erosion. The trail is also unfinished. The part that borders the river goes about 30 meters and suddenly cuts off. Beyond that lays a trail that is difficult to navigate through because of its tough brush and lack of path. After talking with a few of the Newton City Park's workers, I found out that this underdevelopment was due to a lack of funds. The poor soil composition caused erosion on the trail further away from the river. It is composed of silt and clay which is easily eroded. The trail as it stands now is difficult to navigate for bikers and possibly in danger of further erosion. To avoid a lack of maintenance like at Nahanton, and therefore to promote a healthy trail and habitat, using volunteers is one way to keep maintenance and sustainability up while keeping cost down. Volunteers help with onetime conservation events or for longer, ongoing conservation projects. If there is a certain part of the trail that needs to be built or a single goal that can be met with enough volunteers in a day, then a onetime conservation event is the best choice. Before inviting volunteers to work on the trail, create realistic goals that individuals who lack experience can meet. Once these goals are made, volunteer recruitment is the next step! Publicity works best for this job. Providing write ups, before and after, of the project to local newspapers or publications is also a way to document the work being done with the volunteers for future publicity (Birkby, 31). Onetime events are great because they will attract a lot more volunteers then a longer project. For the trail I am building, I will be using a volunteer calendar to organize volunteers in smaller groups that are easier to lead. This way I will always have volunteers at any given time. The benefit of longer, ongoing conservation projects is that there is more time work. The long-term possibilities created from a project like this are much greater.
 * Vegetation **
 * Hiker's responsibility **
 * Maintenance and future sustainability: **

Ultimately, the more we can do to create sustainability in the trail, the more it benefits us. The only way a good trail can be built is by doing so with consideration for the environment. Upon reflecting on the research and practice I have done on this subject, I realize that my thesis is one that every trail builder shares. The beauty of trails is that they are doorways to nature for the hikers, thus the finished product must look and feel as natural as possible for success. The only way to make a trail feel natural is to keep it from eroding, keep vegetation healthy, keep trash out and prevent it from getting worn down. Whether a trail builder sets out to build the trail as environmentally friendly as possible or not, they will inevitably do so if their principal goal is to make a sustainable, viable trail.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1)"IMBA Resources: Trail building and Maintenance." // IMBA - International Mountain Bicycling Association // . Web. 23 Feb. 2010. . 2)"White Mountain National Forest- Welcome!" // US //// Forest Service - Caring for the land and serving people. // Web. 23 Feb. 2010. .

3) Appalachian Mountain Club. // Complete Guide to Trail Building and Maintenance, 4th // . 4th ed. New York: Appalachian Mountain Club, 2008. Print. 4)Hesselbarth, Woody. // Trail construction and maintenance notebook //. USDA Forest Service, Technology and Development Program, 2007. Print. 5)Birkby, Robert. // Lightly on the land: the SCA trail-building and maintenance manual // . 2nd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers, 2005. Print. 6) Proudman, Robert D. // AMC field guide to trail building and maintenance //. Boston: Appalachian Mountain Club, 1977. Print. 7) Slack, Sharon. "Pet Waste Composting." // City Farmer // . Web. 30 Apr. 2010. . 8) Nichols, Nicole, and Jenny Sigler. "A Beginner's Guide to Composting." // Spark People Healthy Lifestyle and Nutrition //. Web. 30 Apr. 2010. . 9) Dannenberg, Dave. “Trail Building.” E-mail Interview. 9 Mar. 2010